Evolution of Tantrism From Its Beginnings to the Mid-Eighth Century
-Prachurya Ghosh
Upinder Singh observes that the early history of Tantrism—its chronology, fve phases, and original geographical location—is extremely difficult to reconstruct. This difficulty arises partly from the immense diversity of Tantric practices and ideas and partly from the secrecy that has always surrounded Tantric traditions, a point also emphasized by André Padoux. Unlike other religious systems that evolved through relatively transparent textual traditions, Tantra developed through esoteric rituals, oral transmission, and sectarian secrecy, making the identification of a single core doctrine problematic.
According to Romila Thapar, despite this diversity, certain general features can be identified across Tantric traditions. These include a strong emphasis on energy (śakti), elaborate ritual practices, yogic disciplines, terrifying or fierce deities, and sexual symbolism and rites. From its early stages, Tantrism influenced not only Shaiva and Shakta traditions but also Buddhism, particularly Vajrayāna, though its impact on Jainism remained comparatively limited. While Hindu and Buddhist Tantras share certain ritualistic and symbolic features, they differ significantly in philosophical orientation and doctrinal foundations.
Among the many magical formulae popularized by Vajrayāna Buddhism is the famous Tibetan mantra Om Mani Padme Hum, commonly interpreted as “Behold, the jewel is in the lotus,” symbolically representing divine union or cosmic coitus. Buddhism had already undergone significant transformations through the emergence of new sects and practices; however, the incorporation of Tantric elements further blurred its distinctiveness as a religion. Tantrism—named after its textual corpus, the Tantras—exerted influence over almost all older religious traditions in India, while simultaneously upholding beliefs and practices that often ran counter to Vedic Brahmanism.
Although Tantric elements can be traced to earlier periods, Tantrism emerged prominently across the Indian subcontinent around the eighth century CE. In eastern India, it developed close connections with Tibetan religious traditions. Archaeological and textual evidence for the worship of Tantric deities dates back to the fifth century CE, and some Tantric texts may also have been composed during this period. The early medieval era witnessed the further consolidation and expansion of Tantric cults and rituals. Both Romila Thapar and Upinder Singh note similarities in ritual structures, especially the shared belief in the efficacy of mantras (mystical formulae), mudrās (symbolic hand gestures), and maṇḍalas (cosmic diagrams). Tantrism was open to all castes and prescribed rituals aimed at achieving both mukti (liberation) and bhukti (worldly enjoyment), as well as fulfilling various material desires (kāmyāni).
Meaning of Tantra
Dr. S. C. Banerjee provides a wide range of meanings for the term tantra, demonstrating its semantic richness across different lexicons. The term has been used to denote diverse concepts such as kutumbakṛtya (duties of relatives), siddhānta (conclusion), oṣadhi (herb), pradhāna (principal), paricchada (dress), śruti-śākhā (branch of Vedic literature), hetu (cause), itikartavyatā (set of duties), rāṣṭra (state), prabandha (composition), śapatha (oath), dhana (wealth), gṛha (house), kula (family), and śāstra-viśeṣa (a specific category of scripture).
In early texts such as the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa and the Tāṇḍya Brāhmaṇa, the word tantra is used to signify the essential or principal part of a subject. This suggests that authors of later Tantric treatises viewed their works as the quintessence of all śāstric knowledge. When tantra denotes a type of śāstra, it refers to a specialized body of doctrines, rituals, mystical syllables, metaphysical speculation, and occult practices. The esoteric nature of Tantra meant that its teachings were reserved exclusively for the initiated.
Etymologically, tantra has been derived from the root tan (to spread or expand), implying that knowledge is extended or elaborated through it. In this sense, philosophical systems such as Sāṃkhya and Nyāya are also referred to as Kapila-tantra and Gautama-tantra respectively. Ayurvedic texts like the Agniveśa-tantra further demonstrate the broad application of the term. Some scholars derive the word from tanu (body), while others from tral (to save), suggesting that Tantra protects or preserves the body through yogic practices.
Importance of Women in Tantra
Tantrism occupies a distinctive position in Indian religious history due to its inclusion of women in ritual practices, aligning it with non-orthodox traditions. Goddesses were accorded exceptional reverence, as evident in texts like the Devī-Māhātmya. Unlike earlier traditions where goddesses were often subordinate consorts, the Devī in Tantrism possessed an independent identity and was worshipped in her own right. The sapta-mātṛkās (seven mother goddesses) further illustrate this development, though they retained connections with male counterparts.
Vajrayāna Buddhism incorporated Tantric ideas through the worship of Tārās, female saviouresses and consorts of male bodhisattvas, revered in ways comparable to Śakti. The proliferation of goddesses reflects both ritual innovation and the absorption of fertility cults and subaltern religious traditions. While goddess worship did not radically alter social structures, it conceptually challenged patriarchy. Women could establish ashrams, act as priestesses, and function as teachers. This continuation of earlier traditions is also seen among Buddhist and Jaina nuns and women poets of the early bhakti movement.
Tantrism, closely linked with Śākta traditions, emphasized female creative energy (śakti) as indispensable to all action. It allowed initiation for women and Śūdras and did not rigidly adhere to varṇa hierarchies. Women emerged as significant practitioners and teachers of Tantra, and Śūdra teachers could initiate others, including Chāṇḍālas, and perform certain rituals.
Features of Tantrism
R. S. Sharma, Upinder Singh, and Romila Thapar note that modern perceptions often reduce Tantrism to orgiastic rituals involving the pañca-makāras—matsya (fish), māṃsa (meat), madya (alcohol), maithuna (sexual union), and mudrā (gestures). However, early Tantric literature and iconography reveal a much broader religious system. Central to Tantrism was the worship of the Mother Goddess, both textually and iconographically.
Tantric practice, known as sādhana, required initiation (dīkṣā) by a guru, who imparted a secret mantra. Mantras, bījas (seed syllables), yantras, mandalas, mudras, hatha-yogic postures, and meditation were all employed to awaken the kuṇḍalinī energy, visualized as a coiled serpent ascending toward union with the supreme. Tantric worship aimed to transform the devotee into the deity.
Tantras also served important social functions by prescribing rituals and remedies for diseases, snakebites, insect bites, planetary afflictions, and supernatural disturbances. Tantric practitioners often acted as physicians and astrologers, reflecting the practical dimensions of Tantric religion.
Causes for the Origin of Tantrism
Max Weber attributed the rise of Tantrism to Brahmanical greed and competition with Buddhism and Jainism. However, evidence does not support the notion of conscious manipulation by Brahmanas. Other scholars emphasize psycho-sexual or mystical explanations, but these fail to explain why Tantrism emerged prominently during early medieval times. A more convincing explanation situates its rise within the economic and social transformations of the period.
Classification of Tantra
Tantric literature has been classified in numerous ways—Agama and Nigama, Śākta, Śaiva, Vaiṣṇava, Hindu and non-Hindu, astika and nāstika. Tantras were also regionally classified into Viṣṇukrānta, Rathakrānta, and Aśvakrānta. Further classifications were based on mythological ages, divine origins, and sectarian affiliations. According to Upinder Singh, Romila Thapar, and R. S. Sharma, Tantrism consisted of multiple sects centered on Viṣṇu, Śiva, and Śakti.
Homeland of Tantra
The homeland of Tantra remains debated. Scholars like Winternitz and Banerjee suggested Bengal as its origin, while others proposed Tibet, China, or Baluchistan. However, the absence of Tantric texts translated into Sanskrit from these regions weakens the external origin theory. Hirananda Shastri and R. C. Majumdar emphasized eastern India, especially Bengal and Kāmarūpa, as the primary centers of Tantric development. Regardless of origin, Tantrism was most deeply rooted in Bengal.
Tantrism in Buddhism
Hindu Tantra conflicted with Buddhist principles such as non-violence, yet Buddhist Tantra adopted many Hindu deities and symbols. Claims of mutual borrowing remain contested, with scholars like P. V. Kane rejecting Buddhist precedence in Tantric development.
Tantricism flourished through cultural exchange across eastern India, Nepal, Tibet, and Kashmir. By absorbing magical beliefs and ritual practices, it became integrated into Puranic Brahmanism and Buddhism. Between the seventh and twelfth centuries CE, Tantrism reached its peak, shaping religious life across medieval India.
